View source for History of Zambia

{{History of Zambia}}
This article deals with the history of the country now called [[Zambia]] from [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times to the present.

==Early history==
That archaic humans were present in Zambia at least 200,000 years ago was shown by the discovery of the Broken Hill skull in [[Kabwe]] in 1921 - this was the first human fossil ever discovered in Africa.<ref>http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/collections-at-the-museum/museum-treasures/broken-hill-skull/index.html</ref>

The earliest known modern humans to live in the territory of modern-day Zambia were the Khoisans. They were bushmen, [[hunters and gatherers|hunter-gatherers]] who lived a [[nomadic]] life, with [[stone age]] technology. Mainly they collected fruit and nuts, but they also hunted [[antelope]] and other animals.

The Khoisans were the only inhabitants of most of Zambia until the 4th century, when  [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] started to migrate from the north. They had far more developed technology - they were [[farmers]] and had [[Iron (material)|iron]] and [[copper]] tools and weapons, as well as knowledge of [[pottery]]-making. They lived in small [[self-sufficient]] villages of wattle-and-daub huts, growing [[sorghum]] and [[beans]], as well as keeping [[cattle]] and [[goats]].

Since the early farmers practised [[slash and burn]] agriculture, they had to constantly move further south when the [[soil]] was exhausted. The [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] khoisans were either killed, [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the new culture or displaced into areas not suitable for agriculture.

With the introduction of agriculture the population grew, and more and more land became cultivated. By the 11th and 12th centuries a more advanced society was beginning to emerge. Even though most villages still were self-sufficient, long distance [[trade]] was developing. Copper mining was intensified, and copper crosses were probably used as a [[currency]]. [[Ivory]] was an export, and [[cotton]] textiles an import. One of the best-known [[archaeology|archaeological]] sites for this period is [[Ing-ombe Ilede]] near [[Siavonga]] close to the [[Kariba Dam]], uncovered in 1960. The increase in trade resulted in larger political units and more complex social structures.

==From 1500 to 1900==
The period between the 16th and the 19th centuries saw the emergence of organized [[Iron Age]] [[Monarchy|kingdoms]] as well as widespread immigration. Four kingdoms were established in this period - the [[Eastern Lunda|Kazembe-Lunda]] in the north  centered on the lower [[Luapula River]], the [[Bemba people|Bemba]] in the north east, the [[Chewa people|Chewa]] in the east and the [[Lozi people|Lozi]] in the west, centered on the upper [[Zambezi River]].

The territory of the present Zambia, being far inland, did not have direct contact with non-Africans until relatively recently in its history. [[Arab]] and Portuguese traders were visiting by the 18th Century. The first recorded European visitors to Zambia were the Portuguese [[Manuel Caetano Pereira]] (a trader of mixed [[Goa]]nese and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] descent) in 1796 and [[Francisco de Lacerda]] (an explorer) in 1798. Both came via [[Tete]] in [[Mozambique]] to [[Mwata Kazembe]]'s capital to seek the chief's agreement to a Portuguese trade route between their territories of [[Mozambique]] and [[Angola]]. Lacerda died within a few weeks of arriving at Kazembe’s but left a valuable journal which was carried back to Tete by his priest and which was later translated into English by the explorer [[Sir Richard Burton]].<ref>William Govan Robertson: "Kasembe and the Bemba (Awemba) Nation." ''Journal of the Royal African Society'', Vol. 3, No. 10 (Jan., 1904), pp. 183-193.</ref><ref name="EB">''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 1911 edition.</ref>

However, it is believed<ref>By whom, and why?</ref> the Portuguese first came in 1720 to [[Zumbo]], Mozambique, just across the [[Luangwa River]] from Zambia, at the confluence with the [[Zambezi River]]. Around 1820 they had settled on the Zambian side at [[Luangwa, Zambia|Feira (now Luangwa)]]. So it is very likely they were visiting Zambian territory between 1720 and 1820.<ref>[http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V5N1/V5N1.htm  ''The Northern Rhodesia Journal'' online], Volume V No. 1 (1962) p43. Accessed 21 March 2007.</ref>

The first [[United Kingdom|Briton]] to record having set foot on Zambian soil was [[David Livingstone]]. In 1851 he started his well-known exploration of the upper [[Zambezi River]], and in 1855 he became the first European to see [[Victoria Falls|Mosi-oa-Tunya]], the waterfall on the [[Zambezi River]], which he named after [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] - the Zambian town near the Falls is named after him. Livingstone later [[Livingstone Memorial|died in Zambia]] in 1873.

When the first Europeans arrived, the most powerful states in pre-colonial Zambia were the kingdom of [[Barotseland]] in the upper Zambezi, and the kingdom of [[Mwata Kazembe]] on the Luapula.

The [[Lozi people]] of Barotseland had refused Arab and Portuguese traders access to their territory. When the kingdom was first established is uncertain, but it was certainly in existence by the 18th century, the Lozi calling themselves Aluya and their country Ngulu. Its ruler was called the [[Litunga]]. He had two capitals: in the [[dry season]] he stayed in the middle of the Zambezi flood plain at [[Lealui]], while at the start of the [[rainy season]] he moved to [[Limulunga]], above the flood water level, a move that is still celebrated in the annual [[Kuomboka]] [[festival]].

The first certain historical fact concerning Barotseland is the arrival in the early 19th century of the [[Makololo]], a clan of the [[South Africa|South-African]] [[Basotho]] or [[Tswana people]]. Utterly defeated by [[Shaka]]'s new [[Zulu Kingdom]] in the 1820s, the remnant of the Makololo, under the leadership of [[Sebetwane]], were forced to march northwards to escape. They conquered the Lozi and became the aristocracy of Barotseland, with Sebitwane as new ''Litunga''.

Sebetwane proved an able leader, and is spoken of with warm respect by [[David Livingstone]], who met him in 1851 shortly before his death. He was succeeded by his daughter [[Mamochisane]], who stepped down early in favour of her half-brother [[Sekeletu]]. With him the Makololo empire appears to have started to fall to pieces, especially after his death in 1863: a year later internal dissension in the ruling class brought a revolt by the Lozi that is said to have exterminated the Makololo aristocracy and forced the survivors to migrate to present-day [[Malawi]].

Towards the end of the 19th century, British hunters, then traders, then settlers started to arrive.

==Colonial Period==

[[Image:CecilRhodes.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Cecil Rhodes]].]]

{{main|Northern Rhodesia}}

In 1888, [[Cecil Rhodes]], spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa, obtained a mineral rights concessions from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern [[Rhodesia]], now [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]], were proclaimed a British [[sphere of influence]]. In the beginning the territory was administered by Rhodes' [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), which showed little interest in the province and used it mainly as a source of labour.

The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper, the discovery of which is due partly to an American scout, [[Frederick Russell Burnham]], who in 1895 lead and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition which established that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa.<ref name="baxter1970">{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=T.W. |author2=E.E. Burke |title=Guide to the Historical Manuscripts in the National Archives of Rhodesia |page=67 |year=1970}}</ref>  Along the [[Kafue River]] in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets.<ref name="scouting">{{cite book |last=Burnham |first=Frederick Russell |title=Scouting on Two Continents |publisher=Doubleday, Page & company |year=1926 |location=|pages=2; Chapters 3 & 4 |oclc=407686}}</ref>

In 1923 the British government decided not to renew the company's [[charter]]; as a result, [[Southern Rhodesia]] was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923. After negotiations the administration of [[Northern Rhodesia]] was transferred to the British [[Colonial Office]] in 1924 as a [[protectorate]], with [[Livingstone, Zambia|Livingstone]] as capital. The capital was transferred to the more central [[Lusaka]] in 1935. A [[Legislative Council]] was established, of which five members were elected by the small European minority (only 4,000 people), but none by the African population.

[[File:Flag of Northern Rhodesia (1939-1953).svg|thumb|200px|left|Flag of [[Northern Rhodesia]].]]

In 1928 enormous [[copper]] deposits were discovered in the region which then became known as the [[Copperbelt]], transforming Northern Rhodesia from a prospective land of colonization for white farmers to a copper exporter. By 1938 the country produced 13% of world's copper extraction. The sector was developed by two companies; the [[Anglo American plc|Anglo American Corporation]] (AAC) and the South African [[Rhodesian Selection Trust]] (RST), who controlled the sector till independence.

The poor safety record and increased taxes triggered a [[Strike action|strike]] of African mineworkers in 1935, known as the [[Copperbelt strike (1935)|Copperbelt strike]]. The strike was crushed by the authorities;  six miners were killed.

During the [[Second World War]] white miners came out on strike in 1940. Realising the importance of their products for the war, they demanded higher salaries. This strike was followed by another by African mineworkers.

Even before the war, there had been talks about merging the two Rhodesias, but the process had been halted by the British authorities, and brought to an absolute stop by the war. Finally, in 1953, both Rhodesias were joined with [[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]]) to form the [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|Central African Federation]]. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crises that afflicted the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.

A [[Northern Rhodesian general election, 1962|two-stage election]] held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution, and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On 31 December 1963, the federation was dissolved, and [[Northern Rhodesia]] became the [[Republic of Zambia]] on [[Zambia Independence Act 1964|24 October 1964]].

==Independence and Cold War==

[[Image:Zambia Ind000.jpg|thumb|130px|right|A book published by the government upon independence.]]

At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government,<ref>There were only eight indigenous Graduates in the country at Independence</ref> and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Most of Zambia's neighbouring countries were still [[colony|colonies]] or under white [[minority rule]].

The [[United National Independence Party]] (UNIP) won the [[Northern Rhodesian general election, 1964|pre-independence elections]], gaining 55 of the 75 seats. The [[Zambian African National Congress]] won 10 seats, and the [[National Progressive Party (Zambia)|National Progressive Party]] won all the 10 seats reserved for whites.<ref name="elections">{{cite web
| url = http://africanelections.tripod.com/zm.html
| title = Elections in Zambia
| publisher = African Elections Database
| accessdate = 2006-10-11
}}</ref> [[Kenneth Kaunda]] was elected [[Prime Minister of Northern Rhodesia|Prime Minister]], and later the same year president, as the country adopted a presidential system.

Kaunda adopted an [[ideology]] of [[African socialism]], close to that of [[Julius Nyerere]] in [[Tanzania]]. Economical policies focused on [[central planning]] and [[nationalisation]], and a system of [[one party rule]] was put in place.

===Towards one party rule===
In 1968 Kaunda was [[Zambian general election, 1968|re-elected as president]], running unopposed. During the following years Zambia adopted a one party system. In 1972 all political parties except UNIP were banned, and this was formalised in a new constitution that was adopted in 1973. The constitution framed a system called "one-party participatory democracy", which in practise meant that UNIP became the sole political factor in the country. It provided for a strong [[President of Zambia|president]] and a [[unicameral]] [[National Assembly of Zambia|National Assembly]]. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of UNIP. The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In legislative elections, only candidates running for UNIP were allowed to participate. Even though inter-party competition was out of question, the contest for seats within UNIP was energetic. In the presidential elections, the only candidate allowed to run was the one elected as president of UNIP at the party's general conference. In this way Kaunda was re-elected unopposed with a yes or no vote in [[Zambian general election, 1973|1973]], [[Zambian general election, 1978|1978]], [[Zambian general election, 1983|1983]] and [[Zambian general election, 1988|1988]].

[[File:Chisembele, S.M..jpg|thumb|right|100px|S.M Chisembele, Cabinet Minister Western Province.]]
This did not, however, mean that there was no dissension to the imposition of a one-party rule in the country or within UNIP.  [[Sylvester Mwamba Chisembele]] who was Cabinet Minister for Western Province (previously Barotse Province) together with UNIP leaders from 7 out of the 8 Provinces established a Committee of 14. The objective of the Committee of 14 which consisted two leaders from each of the 7 provinces was the establishment of a democratically elected council of two leaders from each province to rule the country by consensus with the President as Head of State.  If this had been achieved, it would have meant the curtailing of the absolute power residing in President Kaunda. The Committee of 14 attended a meeting in State House at which President Kaunda agreed to consider their proposals.  However, later he banned the Committee of 14 and this action was followed by the suspension of Sylvester Chisembele and several leaders were sacked.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper="Zambia Daily Mail"|date=21 April 1971}}</ref>  Chisembele later rejoined the Cabinet as Minister for Eastern Province and two years later in 1977 he was transferred in the same position to the Copperbelt Province, where the political situation was tense, especially so because of the forthcoming General Elections.  Simon M. Kapwepwe and Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula, who, before the declaration of a One Party State, had been leaders of the UPP and ANC political parties respectively, had joined UNIP with the intention of challenging for the Presidency. However, their attempt to challenge President Kaunda for the Presidency on the UNIP ticket failed as both were prevented and disqualified by the manipulations of President Kaunda, who stood unopposed.  Simon Kapwepwe and Harry Nkumbula challenged the resultant 1978 election of President Kaunda in the High Court, but unsurprisingly their action was unsuccessful.

===The economy and the copper crisis===
After independence Zambia adopted a [[Left (politics)|left]]-wing economic policy. The economy was to some extent run by central planning, under five year plans, private companies were [[nationalised]] and incorporated into large state-owned conglomerates. The government's goal was to be self-sufficient, which it sought to achieve through [[import substitution]]. At first the plan worked and the economy grew steadily, but in the mid 1970s the economy started to decline drastically. During the period between 1975 and 1990 Zambia's economy dropped by approximately 30%.<ref name="EconomyDrop">{{cite web
| url = http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/dc/back/econ.htm
| title = Zambia - Economic History
| publisher = [http://www.bized.co.uk Biz/ed]
| accessdate = 2006-10-11
}}</ref>

The reason for this was that the Zambian economy was heavily dependent on the copper industry, which had previously been nationalised. During the 1970s the price of copper sank drastically, partly due the [[USSR]], the second largest producer, flooding the market.  This resulted in a large [[deficit spending|deficit]] for the state-owned enterprise. Another reason for the drop was Zambia's involvement in the neighbouring countries politics, and the transportation problems that resulted.

To deal with the crisis Zambia took big loans from the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[Worldbank]], hoping that copper prices would rise again soon, instead of issuing structural reforms.

===Foreign policy===
Internationally, Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ([[UNITA]]) under the independence war and under the subsequent [[Angolan civil war|civil war]], the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) in [[Southern Rhodesia]], and the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) in their struggle against [[apartheid]] in [[South African Republic|the Republic of South Africa]], and the South-West Africa People's Organization ([[SWAPO]]) in their struggle for independence for [[Namibia]]. Zambia also hosted some of the movements. For instance, the ANC exile headquarters were in Lusaka, and ZAPU had a military base in Zambia. This resulted in security problems, as the South Africa and South Rhodesia raided targets inside Zambia on several occasions.

[[Rhodesian Bush War|Rhodesian counterinsurgency operations]] extended into Zambia after [[Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army]] (ZIPRA) rebels shot down two unarmed [[Vickers Viscount]] civilian airliners ([[Air Rhodesia Flight 825]] on 3 September 1978 and [[Air Rhodesia Flight 827]] on 12 February 1979) with Soviet-supplied [[SA-7 Grail|SA-7]] heat-seeking missiles. In retaliation for the shooting down of Flight 825 in September 1978, the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] attacked the ZIPRA guerrilla base at Westlands farm near Lusaka in October 1978, warning Zambian forces by radio not to interfere.<ref>{{Harvnb
|Moorcraft
|McLaughlin
|2008
|pp=140–143}}</ref>

Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the [[Kariba Dam|Kariba]] [[hydroelectric]] station on the [[Zambezi River]] provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity. [[TAZARA]], a railway to the Tanzanian port of [[Dar es Salaam]], built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on the railway line south to South Africa and west through an increasingly war-ravaged Angola.

Civil strife in neighbouring [[Mozambique]] and Angola created large numbers of refugees, many of whom fled to Zambia.

Internationally, Zambia was an active member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), and hosted a summit in Lusaka in 1970. Kenneth Kaunda served as the movements chairman 1970-1973. Among the NAM countries Zambia was especially close to [[Yugoslavia]]. Outside the NAM Zambia also had close relations with the [[Peoples Republic of China]].

In the [[Second Congo War]], Zambia backed Zimbabwe and the Congo but did not participate as a belligerent.

==Multi-party democracy==

===The end of one party rule===
One party rule and the declining economy created disappointment among the people. Several [[strike action|strikes]] hit the country in 1981. The government responded by arresting several [[trade union|union]] leaders, among them [[Frederick Chiluba]]. In 1986 and 1987 protests arose again in [[Lusaka]] and the [[Copperbelt]]. These were followed by riots over rising food prices on 30 June 1990, in which at least 30 people were killed. Few days later,  [[Mwamba Luchembe|Lieutenant Christopher Mwamba Luchembe]] of the [[Zambia Army]] attempted to a [[Mwamba Luchembe|coup d'état]] to rid the Kaunda government. In the early hours of 1 July 1990, Luchembe announced a hostile takeover on state owned radio at the [[Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation]] (ZNBC). The attempt failed and the situation was curbed within three hours by the government, leading to the arrest of Luchembe.

These extensive protests made Kaunda realise the need for [[reform movement|reform]]. He promised a [[referendum]] on [[multiparty democracy]], and lifted the ban on political parties. This resulted in the quick formation of eleven new parties. Among these [[Movement for Multiparty Democracy]] (MMD), led by former union leader Frederick Chiluba, was the most important. After pressure for the new parties the referendum was canceled in favour of direct multiparty election.

===Frederick Chiluba and the MMD===
After a new [[constitution]] had been drafted, [[Zambian general election, 1991|elections]] were held in 1991. They were generally regarded to have been free and fair, and Chiluba won 76% of the presidential vote, and the MMD 125 of the 150 seats in the [[National Assembly of Zambia|National Assembly]], with UNIP taking the remaining 25.<ref name="elections"/>

Economically Chiluba, despite being a former union leader, stood to the right of Kaunda. With support from the [[International Monetary Fund]] and [[World Bank]], to which Zambia was heavily indebted, he liberalised the economy by restricting government interference, re-privatising state-owned enterprises, such as the important copper mining industry, and removing subsidies on various commodities, most notably on [[corn meal]].

When one party rule was first abolished in 1991, many expected a more democratic future for Zambia. These expectations were however clouded by the MMD's treatment of the opposition. Questionable amendments of the constitution and detentions of political opponents caused major criticism, and some donor countries, i.e., the United Kingdom and Denmark, withdrew their [[aid]].

====Coups and emergencies====
In 1993 the government-owned newspaper ''[[The Times of Zambia]]'' reported a story about a secret UNIP plan to take control of government by unconstitutional means, called the "Zero Operation Plan". The plan included industrial unrest, promotion of violence and organisations of mass protests. UNIP did not deny the existence of such a plan, but underlined that it was not a part of their official policy, but the views of extremists within the party. The government responded by declaring a [[state of emergency]] and putting 26 people into detention. Of these, seven, including Kenneth Kaunda's son [[Wezi Kaunda]] were charged with offences against the security of the state. The rest were released.<ref name="HRW">{{cite web
| title = Zambia - Elections and Human Rights in the Third Republic
| url = http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Zambia.htm#P165_20378
| publisher = Human Rights Watch
| accessdate = 2006-10-16
}}</ref>

Prior to the [[Zambian general election, 1996|1996 elections]], UNIP formed an alliance with six other opposition parties. Kenneth Kaunda had earlier retired from politics, but after internal turbulence in the party due to the "Zero Operation Plan" scandal, he returned, replacing his own successor [[Kebby Musokotwane]]. Chiluba's government then amended the constitution, banning people whose parents were not both Zambian citizens from becoming president. This was directly aimed at Kaunda, whose parents were both from [[Malawi]]. In protest UNIP and its allies boycotted the elections, which were then easily won by Chiluba and the MMD.

In 1997 matters escalated. On 28 October a [[1997 Zambian coup d'état attempt|coup d'état attempt]] took place, as a group of army commanders took control over the national radio station, broadcasting a message stating that Chiluba was no longer president. The coup was brought to an end by regular forces, after Chiluba had again declared a state of emergency. One person was killed during the operation. After the failed coup the police arrested at least 84 people accused of involvement.<ref name="BBC1">{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/32668.stm
| title = Zambia holding 84 over coup bid
| publisher = BBC
| accessdate = 2006-10-16  | date=1997-11-18}}</ref> Among these were Kenneth Kaunda and [[Dean Mungomba]], leader of the opposition party the [[Zambia Democratic Congress]]. The arrests were condemned and criticised as illegal inside as well as outside Zambia, and accusations of [[torture]] were made as well.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/24963.stm
| title = Zambia 'tortured coup suspects'
| publisher = BBC
| accessdate = 2006-10-16 }}</ref> Kaunda was released in June the following year, but 44 of the soldiers who took part in the coup were sentenced to [[death penalty|death]] in 2003.<ref name="AI">{{cite web
| url = http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630022003?open&of=ENG-ZMB
| title = Zambia: Forty-four soldiers to be executed
| publisher = Amnesty
| accessdate = 2006-10-16}}</ref>

====2001 elections====
Prior to the [[Zambian general election, 2001|elections in 2001]] Chiluba tried to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. He was forced to step back on this point after protest from within the party as well as from the Zambian public.

==See also==
*[[Heads of Government of Zambia]]
*[[Kazembe]]
*[[Kenneth Kaunda]]
*[[List of Presidents of Zambia]]
*[[Monuments and Historic Sites of Zambia]]
*[[Politics of Zambia]]
* [[Timeline of Lusaka]]

==References==
{{Reflist|4}}

==External links==
*{{cite web
| url = http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2359.htm
| title = Background Note: Zambia
| publisher = U.S. Department of State
}}
*{{cite encyclopedia
| title = Zambia
| encyclopedia = Nationalencyklopedin
| volume = 20
| pages = 270
| publisher = Bokförlaget Bra Böcker
| year = 1996
| edition = 1
}}

*{{cite web
| url = http://www.thezambian.com/history/
| title = The History of Zambia
| publisher = The Zambian
| accessdate = 2006-10-10
| first = Tim
| last = Holmes
}}

; Migration history of the Zambian people
*{{cite web
| url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/0j58j1nz
| title = Deriving Ethno-geographical Clusters for Comparing Ethnic Differentials in Zambia
| publisher = World Cultures Journal
| accessdate = 2010-06-20
| first = Kambidima
| last = Wotela
}}

; Early history
*{{cite web
| url = http://www.localhistories.org/zambia.html
| title = A Short History of Zambia
| first = Tim
| last = Lambert
| accessdate = 2006-10-19
}}
*{{cite web
| url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44137/Zambia
| title = Zambia > History > Archaelology and early history
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Online
| accessdate = 2006-10-19

}}

;Independence

*{{cite web
| url = http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/dc/back/econ.htm
| title = Zambia - Economic History
| publisher = [http://www.bized.co.uk Biz/ed]
| accessdate = 2006-10-11
}}

;Multiparty democracy

*{{cite web
| title = Zambia - Elections and Human Rights in the Third Republic
| url = http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Zambia.htm#P165_20378
| publisher = Human Rights Watch
| accessdate = 2006-10-16
}}
*{{cite web|title=Zambia |url=http://www.barnfonden.se/country_show.asp?id=7&type=n_history |publisher=Barnfonden (The Children's Fund) |language=Swedish |accessdate=2006-10-16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050220003659/http://www.barnfonden.se:80/country_show.asp?id=7&type=n_history |archivedate=February 20, 2005 }} 
*{{cite web
| title = ZAMBIA: Coup attempt must not lead to arbitrary arrests and ill-treatment
| url = http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630101997?open&of=ENG-ZMB
| publisher = Amnesty
| accessdate = 2006-10-16
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Zambia}}
[[Category:History of Zambia| ]]